Cooking brings people together. Whether it’s the aroma of a roast, chocolate muffins or cinnamon cookies filling your home or the sizzle of onions softening in the pan, there’s magic in preparing meals. But what if the tools you use to nourish your family slowly add something toxic to your plate?

It’s a worrying thought, especially with so much conflicting information about what’s safe and what isn’t. Let’s break it down simply so you can feel confident about what you’re cooking with and why it matters.

Click the button below for a more in-depth review of cookware, household products, indoor pollution, and how to reduce exposure to the most common chemicals and toxicants.

Non-Stick Pans: Convenience with a Side of Cancer

Non-stick pans are widely used in restaurants (99% of restaurants and food outlets use non-stick frying pans) and homes. Thanks to their coating, food can easily be lifted and transferred onto a plate, saving us hours of scrubbing. However, they are among the most toxic pieces of cookware. From the beginning, fumes from nonstick cookware were known to kill birds instantly and have been the cause of many health issues. What is the problem with non-stick cookware like Teflon, Anolon and Circulon, and all brands using these coatings?

The answer: PFAS, or “forever chemicals.”

Below is the list of various applications of PFAS:

• Water-repellent finishes and waterproof coatings for outdoor apparel and items made of materials like Gore-Tex

• Non-stick cookware, paints, and coatings

• Conventional greaseproof paper

• Stain and water-resistant treatments for carpets and upholstery

• Utilisation in disposables, wrappers, and fast-food packaging, including microwave popcorn bags and paper straws

• Floor polishes

• Shaving creams, hair products, powders, sunblocks, and skin creams

• Pesticides

• Firefighting foams

• Use by the photographic and pharmaceutical industries

• Medical devices (e.g., catheter coatings, stents and needles to reduce friction and improve clot resistance)

• Conventional toilet paper and feminine care products

What Are PFAS, and Why Should You Care?

PFAS are man-made chemicals that can persist and accumulate in the environment — and our bodies.

PFAS are found in 99% of all human samples.

Two of the most infamous PFAS, PFOA and PFOS, were linked to serious health issues like cancer and hormonal imbalances before being banned in many countries.

Cancers linked to PFAS:

• Kidney Cancer,

• Testicular Cancer,

• Breast Cancer,

• Ovarian and Endometrial Cancer,

• Prostate Cancer,

• Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma,

• Thyroid Cancer, and

• Childhood Leukemia.

PFOA and PFOS were banned in the UK in 2005, the EU in 2008, and the U.S. in 2014. PFOA was banned internationally in 2019, as part of the Stockholm Convention.

Modern non-stick pans don’t use PFOA or PFOS, but they still contain PTFE (a similar type of PFAS, just a different name). PTFE still releases harmful fumes when heated above 300°C. Since it is virtually impossible to monitor the temperature of your pan, those should be banned completely and removed from your kitchen.

Note: Because PFAS are persistent pollutants, they accumulate in the environment to hazardous levels, creating a widespread problem. Today, one of the major sources of exposure is drinking water. Filtering your tap water can save your life.

Living near an airport or sites where fire drills occur regularly are zones with the most polluted water system with PFAS (from the excessive use of fire-extinguishing foams).

They are not safe for you, your family and even your pets. Additionally, when you scratch your nonstick pan, you may ingest coating pieces, creating even more problems. Once the coating is scratched, you must throw away the pan.

PFAS also combine with other toxic compounds responsible for indoor pollution and accumulate in dust, posing a serious risk for infants and children spending their time on the floor or carpets.

HexClad Cookware: What’s the difference?

Manufacturer Warning: “Use warm soapy water and a steel wool pad only around the rim and underside to remove stains. Remember to stay clear of the cooking surface when doing so. To deep clean the pan's interior, soak in warm, soapy water for 10 to 15 minutes and then clean with a soft, nonabrasive sponge.”

This begs the question of how strong and durable the coating is!

In the small print, the manufacturer also warns against using metal utensils, which can scratch the pans. Yet, it openly claims that the coating is scratch-resistant, using a cute little icon to persuade you.

The brand uses PTFE; therefore, they should never be heated at high temperatures or dry heated and must be thrown away if scratched. Due to the design, it may be difficult to spot damage to the non-stick coating, making it a health hazard if pieces end up in the food and in your stomach.

Aluminium Cookware: Outdated and a Health Hazard

Aluminium pans were once everywhere because they are extremely cheap to produce. We now know that aluminium is a neurotoxin and overexposure may be to blame in many neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease.

Acidic foods like tomatoes or sauce in a tin can cause the metal to leach into your meals. Most canned products are packed in plastic-lined (BPA) aluminium cans. This isn’t ideal, because aluminium can cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the brain.

Anodised aluminium is more common nowadays. Cast aluminium is becoming popular as it is less heavy than cast iron cookware. However, this is not enough to protect your health. Once the coating is scratched, you must throw away the pan.

So remove all aluminium cookware from your kitchen now and avoid using aluminium foil at all costs.

Quick notes:

• Baby soy formulae are made using aluminium recipients and are known to contain several times the maximum acceptable levels of aluminium.

• Most Italian stovetop espresso makers, also known as moka pots, are made from aluminium.

• Some beer kegs are still made of aluminium (the beers on tap at the pub).

• Many professional shops providing supplies for hotels and restaurants still distribute complete aluminium cookware ranges and appliances.

• Nespresso capsules are made from aluminium and plastic. When the aluminium seal is pierced, aluminium particles end up in your cup of coffee. Quality-grade aluminium doesn’t exist. Aluminium is aluminium and it is a neurotoxin — no matter what the manufacturer would lead you to believe. The manufacturer also claims they do not use plastic but food-grade lacquer to separate the ground coffee from the toxic aluminium. This is a lie. The so-called “food-grade lacquer” on Nespresso capsules is made of thermoplastic polymers.

This highlights that cookware is just one piece of the puzzle. Aluminium exposure doesn’t stop in the kitchen — it can come from multiple sources, including certain processed foods, baking powders, medications like antacids, and even cosmetics or deodorants.

Solid Ceramic: Best ovenware?

Solid ceramic ovenware is made entirely of clay hardened through high-temperature firing. It can handle extreme temperatures and is ideal for baking, roasting, and slow cooking. The concerning aspect of solid ceramic is glazes. They are applied to give ceramic a smooth, shiny finish and to make it non-porous. However, some glazes contain harmful substances like lead and cadmium, which can leach into food.

Notes: Extremely fragile, solid ceramic ovenware must be handled and stored carefully. Ceramic doesn’t respond well to sudden changes in temperature. Allow it to cool completely before washing to prevent cracking.

Ceramic-Coated Pans: Worth the Hype?

Ceramic-coated pans are a trendy choice in cookware, often marketed as a healthier, non-toxic alternative to traditional non-stick pans. But what’s the real story behind these smooth, shiny surfaces? Are they as safe and durable as they seem?

Ceramic-coated pans are typically made with an aluminium core for lightweight heat conduction and coated with an advanced ceramic layer. This layer is derived from natural materials like silica (sand), and some brands even claim to infuse their coatings with diamonds for added durability.

However, while the ceramic coating is hard, it can also be brittle, leading to quick wear and tear. Once the coating is scratched, you must throw away the pan.

Note: Ceramic-coated cookware manufacturers may use the same toxic glues as all nonstick cookware, continuing to make those pans a considerable problem.

Glass: The Ultimate Non-Toxic Option?

Glass cookware is inert. It won’t react with food or release harmful chemicals. It’s an excellent option for baking and microwave use, but its fragility makes it less suitable for stovetop cooking.

Heat-resistant glass oven dishes are nice to use, as you can see the food cooking. They also make a great statement on the table, displaying layers (e.g., cottage pie, tiramisu, or trifle).

Tempered borosilicate glass is a design that allows for wide temperature variations without breaking (often handling a temperature difference of 220˚c — can handle temperatures from -40°c to 300°c)

However, like yellow glass pans, stained glass can contain lead or cadmium, which can leach into the food. Vintage pans may contain levels that are not authorised today. It may be best to use them as decorations rather than for cooking.

Not all transparent glass pans can be used on electric or gas stoves, and it is always best to cook preparations on low heat, even if the pan is designed to be used on a stove (e.g., warming milk or sauces).

Why Are Lead and Cadmium in Glass Pans and Glazes a Concern?

Lead and cadmium were historically used in glazes for their vibrant colours and durability. Over time, these toxic substances can leach into food, especially when the cookware is:

• Used to cook or store acidic foods (e.g., tomato sauce, citrus).

• Exposed to high temperatures, causing the glaze to break down.

Both lead and cadmium are dangerous even in small amounts, potentially causing serious health issues like:

• Neurological problems.

• Kidney damage.

• Developmental delays in children.

Air Fryers — Health Disasters?

Air fryers have become a kitchen staple because they promise guilt-free, crispy foods with minimal (or no) oil. However, concerns about their construction materials — specifically non-stick coatings and plastic components — have raised questions about potential exposure to toxic chemicals like PFOS, PFOA, and other compounds.

Here’s what you need to know about the safety of air fryers and how to make the healthiest choice for your kitchen.

— Non-Stick Coatings
Most air fryers use a non-stick coating, typically made from PTFE (commonly known as Teflon) or other fluoropolymers. While these coatings are generally considered safe at low temperatures, they can release toxic fumes when heated. This is a concern if the air fryer is frequently used at high heat.

— Plastic Components
Many air fryers have plastic baskets, handles, or housing. Some plastics can leach harmful substances like bisphenol A (BPA) or phthalates into food when exposed to high heat. Over time, wear and tear can make this a concerning issue.

— PFAS and “Forever Chemicals”
Some air fryers may include components treated with PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), a class of chemicals associated with long-term environmental and health risks. These chemicals are known to persist in the body and the environment, contributing to conditions like cancer, hormone disruption, and immune system damage.

Are All Air Fryers Unsafe?

There’s no denying that some air fryers, particularly older or cheaper models, may pose health risks due to toxic materials like BPA or non-stick coatings like Teflon. How many casings are made completely of plastic, releasing toxic chemicals that combine with other volatile substances to create indoor pollution?

Not all air fryers are created equal. High-quality models from reputable brands often use safe, durable materials like ceramic-coated or stainless steel baskets instead of non-stick or plastic components. These alternatives reduce the risk of toxic exposure.

How to Choose a Safe Air Fryer

1. Check for Non-Toxic Coatings
   Look for air fryers with baskets made of stainless steel or ceramic coatings, free from PTFE, PFOA, and PFAS. Brands explicitly labelling their products as free from these chemicals are safer.

2. Avoid Plastic Components
   Opt for air fryers free from plastic parts, particularly in areas that come into contact with food or are exposed to high heat.

3. Research Brand Transparency
   Choose reputable brands with clear safety certifications. Check for compliance with national standards.

4. Consider Size and Temperature
   Larger air fryers often have higher temperature capacities. Be mindful of models that can reach extremely high temperatures, which can increase the risk of coating degradation. Precision is key to both safety and cooking quality. Choose an air fryer with:

   • Adjustable temperature settings: Avoid models only offering fixed temperatures, as overheating can degrade materials and coatings.

   • Built-in timer: Prevents overcooking and ensures meals are prepared efficiently without unnecessary energy use.

5. Good Ventilation Design

   A well-ventilated air fryer prevents smoke or fumes from building up during cooking. Models with advanced airflow systems reduce odours and ensure even cooking and crisping.

   Beware of acrylamide. Air fryers circulate hot air around the food, which can create acrylamide. We all love that browning reaction, whether baking, frying, or roasting foods. The higher the temperature and the longer the cooking time, the more acrylamide is produced. Some claim that air fryers reduce acrylamide concentration by 90% compared to deep frying; however, the claims are typically based on low heat settings. Acrylamide is created when carbs are heated at high temperatures (e.g., potatoes, bread, etc.).

   Soaking starchy vegetables before placing them in your air fryer can help reduce acrylamide formation and make them crispier. This method is ideal for cooking potatoes and homemade chips. But don’t overcook them.

   In addition to acrylamide, cooking meat and fish at high temperatures can create other potentially harmful chemicals, like heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HCAs and PAHs). Always follow the manufacturer’s advice and never cook on high heat or overcook your food.

6. Energy Efficiency

   Air fryers are known for quick cooking times, but energy consumption can vary. Look for:

   • Low wattage models: These are more energy-efficient, especially for small households.

   • Energy-saving features: Look for auto shut-off, which prevents the air fryer from running unnecessarily.

Caring for Your Air Fryer

To maximise safety and longevity:

• Avoid overheating: Stay within the recommended temperature range for your air fryer to prevent coating degradation.

• Use gentle utensils: Avoid metal tools that could scratch non-stick surfaces.

• Clean regularly: Prevent residue build-up that could lead to burning or degradation.

• Never place food on a non-stick surface. Always cover the basket with unbleached parchment paper. This is not necessary if the basket is made of stainless steel.

Sources:

Sanchez, O. (2023). Detox before Energise. Nutrunity Pulshing, London.

Division of Cancer Epidemiology & Genetics. (2024). PFAS Exposure and Risk of Cancer. Available at: https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/what-we-study/pfas [Accessed: 26th Nov. 2024]

International Agency for Research on Cancer. (2023). IARC Monographs evaluate the carcinogenicity of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). Available at: https://www.iarc.who.int/news-events/iarc-monographs-evaluate-the-carcinogenicity-of-perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-and-perfluorooctanesulfonic-acid-pfos/ [Accessed: 26th Nov. 2024]

References:

Chang, VC. Rhee, J. Berndt, SI. et al. (2023). Serum perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoate and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer according to hormone receptor status: An analysis in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. International Journal of Cancer. 153(4), pp. 775-782. doi:10.1002/ijc.34487

Ho, SH. Soh, SXH. Wang, MX. et al. (2022). Perfluoroalkyl substances and lipid concentrations in the blood: A systematic review of epidemiological studies. Science of the Total Environment. 850, 158036. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158036

Rhee, J. Chang, VC. Cheng, I. et al. (2023). Serum concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and risk of renal cell carcinoma in the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Environment International. 180, 108197. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2023.108197

Shearer, JJ. Callahan, CL. Calafat, AM. et al. (2021). Serum concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and risk of renal cell carcinoma, JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 113(5), pp. 580–587. doi:10.1093/jnci/djaa143

Zahm, S. Bonde, JP. Chiu, WA. et al. (2023). Carcinogenicity of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). Lancet Oncology. 25(1), pp. 16-17. doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(23)00622-8